Resources for clinicians, therapists, & mental health workers

We know that it can be difficult to find trustworthy information about dissociation and depersonalisation online. Here, we have collected some of the resources that we think are accurate and would feel comfortable recommending.

If you have other resources to suggest, please tell us about them using the contact form, and we will take a look!

Key academic papers

  • Bailey, T. D., & Brand, B. L. (2017). Traumatic dissociation: Theory, research, and treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12195

    Eve, Z., Heyes, K., & Parry, S. (n.d.). Conceptualizing multiplicity spectrum experiences: A systematic review and thematic synthesis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, n/a(n/a). https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2910

    Holmes, E., Brown, R., Mansell, W., Fearon, R., Hunter, E., Frasquilho, F., & Oakley, D. (2005). Are there two qualitatively distinct forms of dissociation? A review and some clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.08.006

    Hunter, E. C. M., Phillips, M. L., Chalder, T., Sierra, M., & David, A. S. (2003). Depersonalisation disorder: A cognitive-behavioural conceptualisation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(12), 1451–1467. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00066-4

    Lebois, L. A. M., Kumar, P., Palermo, C. A., Lambros, A. M., O’Connor, L., Wolff, J. D., Baker, J. T., Gruber, S. A., Lewis-Schroeder, N., Ressler, K. J., Robinson, M. A., Winternitz, S., Nickerson, L. D., & Kaufman, M. L. (2022). Deconstructing dissociation: A triple network model of trauma-related dissociation and its subtypes. Neuropsychopharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01468-1

    Sar, V. (2011). Epidemiology of Dissociative Disorders: An Overview. Epidemiology Research International, 2011, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/404538

  • Černis, E., Evans, R., Ehlers, A., & Freeman, D. (2021). Dissociation in relation to other mental health conditions: An exploration using network analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 136, 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.08.023

    Foote, B., Smolin, Y., Neft, D. I., & Lipschitz, D. (2008). Dissociative Disorders and Suicidality in Psychiatric Outpatients. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 196(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31815fa4e7

    Langeland, W., Jepsen, E. K. K., Brand, B. L., Kleven, L., Loewenstein, R. J., Putnam, F. W., Schielke, H. J., Myrick, A., Lanius, R. A., & Heir, T. (2020). The economic burden of dissociative disorders: A qualitative systematic review of empirical studies. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 12(7), 730–738. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000556

    Lee, W. E., Kwok, C. H. T., Hunter, E. C. M., Richards, M., & David, A. S. (2012). Prevalence and childhood antecedents of depersonalization syndrome in a UK birth cohort. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(2), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0327-7

    Lyssenko, L., Schmahl, C., Bockhacker, L., Vonderlin, R., Bohus, M., & Kleindienst, N. (2018). Dissociation in Psychiatric Disorders: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using the Dissociative Experiences Scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010025

    Nester, M. S., Pierorazio, N. A., Shandler, G., & Brand, B. L. (2023). Characteristics, Methods, And Functions Of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Among Highly Dissociative Individuals. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 0(0), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2023.2181475

  • Černis, E., Chan, C., & Cooper, M. (2019). What is the relationship between dissociation and self‐harming behaviour in adolescents? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 26(3), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2354

    Goffinet, S. J. L., & Beine, A. (2018). Prevalence of dissociative symptoms in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 2(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2017.10.008

    Woolard, A., Boutrus, M., Bullman, I., Wickens, N., Gouveia Belinelo, P. D., Solomon, T., & Milroy, H. (2024). Treatment for childhood and adolescent dissociation: A systematic review. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001615

  • Fung, H. W., Ross, C. A., Lam, S. K. K., & Hung, S. L. (2022). Recent research on the interventions for people with dissociation. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 100299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2022.100299

    Hunter, E. C. M., Charlton, J., & David, A. S. (2017). Depersonalisation and derealisation: Assessment and management. BMJ, j745. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j745

    Hunter, E. C. M., Phillips, M. L., Chalder, T., Sierra, M., & David, A. S. (2003). Depersonalisation disorder: A cognitive-behavioural conceptualisation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(12), 1451–1467. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00066-4

    International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (2011): Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision, Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 12:2, 115-187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2011.537247

    Nester, M. S., Hawkins, S. L., & Brand, B. L. (2022). Barriers to accessing and continuing mental health treatment among individuals with dissociative symptoms. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 2031594. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2031594

    Woolard, A., Boutrus, M., Bullman, I., Wickens, N., Gouveia Belinelo, P. D., Solomon, T., & Milroy, H. (2024). Treatment for childhood and adolescent dissociation: A systematic review. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001615

Measures & Scales

  • Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-II)

    Carlson & Putnam (1993)

    The current ‘gold standard’ for measuring a range of dissociative experiences in respondents aged 18+.

    #AskMDDC: The DES is good for a broad overview, but it does have its flaws and some items can be easily misinterpreted.

    More

  • The Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale (CDS)

    Sierra & Berrios (1996)

    The best option for measuring depersonalisation-derealisation symptoms. A clinical cut-off of 70 has been established.

    #AskMDDC: We use this scale in the MDDC because it is helpful to have a cut-off. However, it also has items that can be misinterpreted and the rating scale is not intuitive to everyone.

    View

  • Černis Felt Sense of Anomaly scale (ČEFSA)

    Černis et al. (2021; 2024)

    This scale measures common dissociative experiences where subjective ‘strangeness’ is the core experience. It is validated for adolescents and adults.

    #AskMDDC: For full transparency, this is the scale developed by the MDDC Centre Lead.

    Wiki

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Resources from charities

  • Unreal

    The UK charity for Depersonalisation Disorder

    Visit

  • International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (ISSTD)

    A US-based international not-for-profit organisation

    ISSTD Resources

Other resources

  • Working with Dissociation Using ACT

    by Dr Russ Harris

    Download

  • "My Dissociation" worksheet

    A worksheet to help clients summarise their experiences to communicate them to others.

    Download